◄ Resources (Info +) / Glossary
In this constantly growing section you can find the definitions of terms and processes, as well as the summaries of notions and concepts related directly or indirectly to architecture and design, as they are practised in the studio.
• collecting the solar heat energy through the mechanical systems such as photovoltaics for power generation, or thermal solar for heat collection
• the original pattern or model from which all things of the same kind are copied or on which they are based; a model or first form; prototype; an inherited idea or mode of thought in the psychology of C. G. Jung that is derived from the experience of the race and is present in the unconscious of the individual (after Unabridged Dictionary, Marriam-Webster)
• from ‘The History of Philosophy’ by A. C. Grayling • in the introductory part of his book, A. C. Grayling lists the following principal areas of philosophical enquiry:
• Epistemology • or ‘theory of knowledge’ is enquiry into the nature of knowledge and how it is acquired. It investigates the distinctions between knowledge, belief and opinion, seeks to ascertain the conditions under which a claim to know something is justified, and examines and offers responses to skeptical challenges to knowledge.
• Metaphysics •
• Logic • the science of valid and sound reasoning, it is the general instrument of philosophy, as mathematics is in science.
• Ethics •
• Aesthetics •
• Philosophy of mind •
• Philosophy of language •
• Political philosophy •
• History of debates in the above-mentioned areas of enquiry •
• Philosophical examination of the assumptions, methods and claims of other fields of enquiry in science and social science •
• in urban planning • utilizing the cultural capital of art and artists in order to add or boost the value, both cultural and economic, of a real estate entity or development without making changes to the entity or development themselves
• a state of mind consisting of pure sensation, emotion or feeling without cognitive content; consciousness that is pure passive receptiveness without understanding or intellectual organization of the materials presented (after Unabridged Dictionary, Marriam-Webster)
• in architecture, engineering and design • is a method of designing through the application of knowledge about the principles, processes, structures, and forms of live nature
• in architecture • a building material composed of two constituent parts, with at least one of them being of natural origin. The resulting material may have improved performance over the constituents, and is categorized as either structural and non-structural (after Eric Baldwin on archdaily.com)
• a customer’s perception of a product, service, or company; a commercial reputation (from ‘Brand A-Z’ by Marty Neumeier)
• “Design a customer you want, and let this customer create your brand” (Marty Neumeier from “The Brand Flip” talk, 2019)
• is a process of digital modeling physically and functionally accurate elements of a facility with related data (information) attached to a given element, space or area
• in architecture • BIM software would usually simulate the organization and components of a building, that is provide a spatial interface based on floors, and include a number of predetermined elements and their data sets, with a possibility to create the custom ones; it would also normally provide a seamless integration between 2D and 3D design workflows, as well as tools for creating graphic representations and layouts; additionally, it would provide specific tools for data management and element analyses
• such mode of energy production and consumption which doesn’t add any new carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
• a balance between emitting and absorbing carbon into and from the atmosphere respectively
• one of the strategies to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and pursue the carbon neutrality; it consists in offsetting the emissions done in one sector, by reducing the same amount of emissions in another sector; investments into the renewable energy and concept of energy efficiency can be considered as parts of the carbon offsetting strategy
• one of the theoretical solutions to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere; the idea is to separate carbon dioxide from a power plant’s gas steam, compress it, and inject it into a medium deep underground, where it could be trapped and stored, rather than pumping it into the air; at the present moment (2021), several types of locations are considered for the storage: depleted oil and gas fields, unminable coal seams and briny aquifers (after Live Science Journal)
• mostly natural ‘reservoirs’ into which the atmospheric carbon is absorbed and stored; main carbon sinks are oceans, plants and soil; it is estimated that at the present moment (2021) only half of the carbon induced into the atmosphere as a result of human activity is trapped and stored by the natural systems; a global practical solution to balance the said discrepancy has not yet been envisioned, and if found, it is to be one of the major scientific breakthroughs of the 21st century
• an economic model formulated in the early 21st century as a response to the dominant linear economic model and its negative environmental effects; the primary strategy of circular economy consists in reducing waste or leakage of materials and resources as much as possible; an economic model based inter alia on sharing, leasing, reuse, repair, refurbishment and recycling, in an (almost) closed loop, which aims to retain the highest utility and value of products, components and materials at all times (after European Commission)
• the art of combining parts or elements to form an inter-related whole of possibly effectual nature
• arrangement of sensorial content by means of the formal definition of space (see Research / Architectural Space. Categories and Experience →)
• a city planning policy that promotes innovative models of the urban economy based mostly on the cultural industry, through such fields as Crafts and Folk Arts, Media Arts, Film, Design, Gastronomy, Literature, Music; it is not uncommon to redevelop the existing architectural and urban spaces on microscale as part of the policy, with probably the most widespread example being the transformation of the abandoned industrial spaces into the spaces for non-industrial activity
• in metallurgy • a specific tree-like branching structure of a crystal growth; it occurs when a melt or a solution contains some admixture atoms which lower the melting temperature of that crystal
• in architecture • a virtual reality based design approach during which an operator models the spaces in accordance with the parallelly developed analytical models predicting certain behaviors of a building or its occupants, such as the air movement models, or the occupancy models
• also known as generative, algorithmic, parametric, or node-based design • a method of designing through the visual scripting language with two essential components of the language being functions (also known as nodes, or data blocks) and relations (or links); by combining the functions into the web of respective relations within a graphic interface, an operator can achieve custom functionality needed for the project without the necessity to use a standard text-based scripting language
• or a circular design process • a methodology of gradual design improving and refining through multiple cyclic iterations, each following specific observations, testing, analysis
• or desire path • an unplanned route or path, such as worn into a grassy surface by repeated foot traffic, that is used by pedestrians in preference to or in the absence of a designated alternatives, such as a paved pathway (after Merriam-Webster)
• any systematic reasoning, exposition, or argument that juxtaposes opposed or contradictory ideas and usually seeks to resolve their conflict: a method of examining and discussing opposing ideas in order to find the truth (after Merriam Webster)
• in architecture and design • exact digital copy of an existing object, that may contain all kind of information pertaining to it, such as: geometry, materials, technology, quantities, functions, maintenance history and schedule, et.
• in philosophy and history • a method of reconstructing a theory or an event from fragments of records scattered throughout historical period
• using less energy to perform a given task, compared to the standard use; eliminating the energy waste
• the history of a linguistic form (such as a word) shown by tracing its development since its earliest recorded occurrence in the language where it is found, by tracing its transmission from one language to another, by analyzing it into its component parts, by identifying its cognates in other languages, or by tracing it and its cognates to a common ancestral form in an ancestral language (after Merriam-Webster)
• a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge; a theory of knowledge
• an attempt to understand the proper nature of knowledge in relationship to the methodologies of knowing (from the lectures ‘A History of Philosophy’ by Arthur F. Holmes)
• is a single ply synthetic rubber; available in black and white colours and having its thickness ranging between few millimetres and several centimetres, its use cases are wide and can be found in automobiles, industrial plants, etc; In architecture, it is widely used as a roofing membrane
• also known as human factors • a scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance; the discipline brings together knowledge from other subjects such as anatomy and physiology, psychology, engineering and statistics to ensure that designs complement the strengths and abilities of people and minimize the effects of their limitations (after Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors)
• da ‘De Architectura’ di Vitruvio • nel secondo capitolo del primo libro di ‘De Architectura’, Vitruvio elenca le sei categorie che, secondo lui, compongono l’architettura. Le categorie sono le seguenti:
• Ordinatio • consiste nella giusta proporzione e misura delle singole parti di un’opera separatamente prese e nel loro rapporto di proporzione e di simmetria col tutto. Essa si fonda sulla quantità, che non è altro che l’assunzione di una unità di misura dell’opera stessa e l’armonica realizzazione di questa nel suo complesso in relazione alle singole parti che la compongono.
• Dispositio • consiste nella conveniente collocazione degli elementi e nell’elegante realizzazione dell’opera nelle sue varie componenti dal punto di vista della qualità. Esistono tre forme della dispositio:
– icnografia – descrizione in pianta delle forme architettoniche;
– ortografia – la rappresentazione in verticale della facciata dell’edificio;
– scenografia – il tracciato della facciata in prospettiva, con la convergenza di tutte le linee al centro del compasso.
Le tre forme nascono da:
– cogitatio – idea di progettazione;
– inventio – capacità inventiva.
• Eurythmia • è quel bello e armonico aspetto esteriore che ci viene offerto dalle varie parti nel loro insieme, che si ottiene quando le componenti di un’opera conservano l’armonica proporzione dell’altezza rispetto alla larghezza e della larghezza rispetto alla lunghezza e rispondono ad una loro interna simmetria.
• Symmetria • l’armonico accordo tra le parti di una stessa opera e la rispondenza dei singoli elementi all’immagine d’insieme della figura. Come nel corpo umano la caratteristica euritmica sta nel rapporto simmetrico dato dal piede, dalla mano, da un dito, così dev’essere nella realizzazione dell’opera architettonica. Ad esempio, negli edifici sacri il calcolo delle proporzioni è dato dal diametro delle colonne.
• Decor • bell’apparire dell’opera priva di difetti.
• Distributio • consiste nell’opportuna partizione dei materiali e dell’area edificabile e in un oculato criterio di spesa.
• a unified whole of shape and space; a shaped space
• in architecture and design • anything related to a form or a shape
• in architecture • compositional principle when an element, usually structural, is divided or fragmented into smaller elements which together nonetheless perform the same structural function; for example, a standard grid of concrete columns could be fragmented into a much larger amount of much smaller metal columns, which could result in a particular effect of lightness; the distribution of fragmented structural elements often follows the principle of field rather than grid – which may result in a forest-like space with fields of columns being denser in some areas while looser in others, depending on structural and compositional needs
• a total work of art, where each element or sub-element is a conceptual and organic part of the whole
• a configuration, pattern, or organized field having specific properties that cannot be derived from the summation of its component parts; a unified whole
• also known as A European Green Deal • is broad european policy, launched in 2019, encompassing every sector of economy and aimed at making the EU’s climate, energy, transport and taxation policies fit for reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels), achieve no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050, and decouple economic growth from the natural resources use
• a term used to describe the process causing the heat to be trapped by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which in turn causes the global temperature levels rise
• are gases that absorb the radiant energy (also known as heat or infrared energy) emitted from Earth’s surface and emit it back to the surface, contributing therefore to the Greenhouse Effect; the main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapour, surface-level ozone, nitrous oxides (N2O), and fluorinated gases
• fluorinated gases are man made, they are products of industrial activity and can be divided into four main categories: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
• is a system that uses electricity to transfer heat from a cool medium into a warm medium; it moves heat from the outdoors into the controlled spaces during the cold season, and vice versa during the warm season; there are two main categories of heat pumps: ducted and ductless
• ducted category of heat pumps is divided into three main sub-categories or types: air – source, water – source, and ground – source (with the latter two collectively known as geothermal); respectively, they collect and transfer heat from the outside air, water or ground into the controlled space; geothermal heat pumps normally would cost more to install, but because the deep water or ground temperature is relatively constant, such pumps are generally more efficient, especially in more extreme climates
• ductless category is presented by two main device types: 1) mini-split heat pumps, composed of external compressor / condenser and internal air handling unit, linked by a conduit housing power cable, refrigerant tubing, suction tubing, condensate drain; 2) reverse cycle chillers, generating hot and cold water rather than air, which makes them good companions to the radiant floor heating systems in heating mode
• from Greek ‘hòlos’ • means that in the whole there is something more than can be found in its single parts, a thesis seen as a return to obscurantism on part of many so called ‘reductionists’ (from Geoarchitettura by P. Portoghesi)
• incorporating the concept of holism, or the idea that the whole is more than merely the sum of its parts, in theory or practice
• in philosophy • the theory that whole entities, as fundamental components of reality, have an existence other than as the mere sum of their parts
• in philosophy • two contrasting approaches with one (holistic) looking at an idea as a whole, and another (atomistic) looking at an idea through the single elements that constitute it
• in metallurgy • a quality of a certain process’s product to inherit a shape of a certain template; for example if the atomic crystal cell is of cubic shape and the crystal itself inherits that cubic shape, than such a crystal is called idiomorphic
• a hypothetical period in the development of human society that is expected to follow the current period, known as the Information Age, and which is to be characterized by the establishment of creativity and imagination as the new basis of global economy
• a category of architectural space • space in building, which is necessarily related to the building and the building itself (see Research / Architectural Space. Categories and Experience →)
• also known as wireless induction charging • it is a charging technique based on the principle of electromagnetic induction; when electrical current is sent through a coil, it creates a magnetic field around that coil, whose action generates another electric current in a second coil, positioned nearby
• the art of design of manufactured objects, including consideration for materials and technology
• or the Fourth Industrial Revolution, 4IR • is a term used to describe substantial changes to the manufacturing processes in the 21st century, when the labor is expected to become fully automated by the means of smart machines (such that possess processors, dedicated software, internet address); the smart machines at the same time are to be interconnected through the IoT (Internet of Things) into the broader network of cyber-physical systems; the role of human is to be shifted towards the digital production, programming, control, management, development of the AI (Artificial Intelligence), and creative tasks
• a period that began in the second half of the 20th century and eventually became characterized by the establishment of the information technology as the new basis of global economy
• the action or process of understanding; the exercise of the intellect; reasoning
• or inter-scale • is such a condition when two distinct objects of different functions and scales become one object, manifesting the inherent characters of the two; two types of inter-object can be observed: local and global
• local type of inter-object is a distinct part of a larger entity; for example the steps of a building can at the same time be a library, a bed, or a table; another example, which can be observed in most of the buildings, is an elevator shaft which often serves two distinct functions – that of a vertical distribution path, and that of a structural element carrying floors and staircases
• global type of inter-object is the whole entity itself; for example, the floors of a building can be fragmented (see Fragmentation) to such an extent when they become a series of platforms, serving a variety of functions like steps, tables, beds, wardrobes, different pods, etc; in this case a global inter-object is a condition between a building and furniture; NA House by Sou Fujimoto is a perfect example of such condition
• both local and global inter-objects can be observed on urban scale; locally, every building can be viewed as two things: 1) organizational element for creation of streets and squares, 2) container for human life and activity; globally, a single building can be composed of a number of solids and voids, or “smaller buildings” and internal yards, manifesting therefore inherent characters of a village and a building at the same time
• a category of architectural space • a single space where the inherent characters and qualities of two or more differentiated sub-categories overlap; it is not differentiated but composite sub-category of architectural space (see Research / Architectural Space. Categories and Experience →)
• meaning Light Emitting Diode or Light Emitting Device • is a device that generates light inside a solid semiconductor body when electrical current is passed through it; light is produced when the particles carrying the current (known as electrons and holes) are combined within the defined space of semiconductor material; the solid state nature of LEDs distinguish them from other lighting technologies such as incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps, or fluorescent lamps
• in architecture • a space between two entry / exit points; a transition space; a space meant to be passed by; a group of distributional spatial blocks, like a corridor, a hallway, a walkway, a staircase; a transitional quality of a complex functional type, like that of an airport, a railway station, a shopping mall, a museum, a gallery
• in Japanese architecture, it is a space between object and object, between event and event. It is thus an in-between space within or between other, more definable, spaces (after ‘House of Sugimoto’; ‘Arata Isozaki – Time, Space, Existance’)
• in architecture • a building whose morphology constitutes a single and recognizable shape, like the utility design objects usually do (pen, mobile phone, mug, etc.); the recognizability of such buildings, often combined with originality and elegance, may result in a logo-like quality (not to be confused with ‘logo-tecture’), which may result in such a phenomenon when a particular organization occupying a particular recognizable building becomes linked to the shape of this building as if it were its logo, which is exemplified in the Pentagon; the term MDO became widely used in the first quarter of the 20th century and is strongly associated with famous Manhattan skyscrapers of those years, like the Chrysler Building or the Empire State Building
• a parallel world, currently mostly hypothetical, existing on the internet; it could be the exact copy of the existing world, a copy with additional or alternative features, or a completely invented world; it is closely related to the technology of virtual reality and could potentially provide a platform for creating an immersive experience of digital environment in general and architecture in particular
• in architecture, a metaverse can become an experimental ground, not necessarily connected to the rules of physics, for the development of formal languages and spatial organizations
• fear or intolerance, sometimes accompanied by expressive manifestation, of everything new or unknown, innovation or change
• or urban mix • a methodology of the city planning which involves integration between various aspects of the city into one development, hence mixing private, public, economic, social, cultural, typological, morphological elements among others
• an environmental, economic and cultural project, aiming to combine design, sustainability, accessibility, affordability and investment in order to help deliver the European Green Deal; the core values of the New European Bauhaus are thus sustainability, aesthetics and inclusiveness (after European Commission)
• in terms of architecture and design, New European Bauhaus means such an approach that organically combines core environmental and humanitarian values of the European Green Deal with intrinsically artistic values of aesthetics and expression; in order to promote the approach a New European Bauhaus Prize was established in 2021
• a category of architectural space • space of building, which is necessarily related to the building and the ground (see Research / Architectural Space. Categories and Experience →)
• a category of architectural space • space on building, which is necessarily related to the building and the air (see Research / Architectural Space. Categories and Experience →)
• a style within contemporary avant-garde architecture and design, promoted as a successor to earlier modernism and postmodernism by a number of its proponents, most notably Patrik Schumacher (ZHA – Zaha Hadid Architects), to whom the term is often attributed; the style is characterized by both it’s method and form – every element present in a system or composition is linked parametrically to every other element which results in them forming a mutually adaptive and reactive whole, which formal language is based on a repertoire of curvilinear, continuously differentiated shapes, distributed in smooth swarm-like formations (suggested reading: The Autopoiesis of Architecture, Volumes 1 and 2, A New Framework for Architecture, John Wiley & Sons, 2010 and 2012)
• in architecture • is one of the spatial distribution and formal organization principles, based on the relationships between the sun exposure, season, geographical position, and functional type of space within a building; most common technique of the passive solar design involves preventing the direct sunlight from entering the determined spaces in the summer months, while allowing it in winter, contributing therefore passively into the spaces being cooler or warmer respectively
• in architecture • air movement circulation to and from an indoor space created by the means of natural forces like wind and thermal buoyancy; it is used to regulate the internal air temperature, as well as provide for fresh air input and stale air output; in addition to windows and standard vents, the air circulation shafts can be incorporated into the building structure, such as floors and walls, in order to partially regulate their temperature in accordance to the season
• the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct (after Unabridged Dictionary)
• the principles and methods of thinking, including its history and analysis
• a system which functions similarly to photovoltaic panels (see below), but utilizes the materials with high index of transparency in order to create a photovoltaic cell; partially transparent photovoltaic cells are sandwiched between the layers of transparent glass, with certain gaps, known as the slittering, maintained between the cells, if needed, in order to allow more light passing through; slittering together with the use of different tints of the semiconductor base, allows for customizable coloured patterns to be created within the photovoltaic glass
• also known as solar panels • a set of materials and devices used to convert sunlight into electrical energy; a single photovoltaic device is called a cell; photovoltaic cells are made of different semiconductor materials, like silicon, usually in a shape of small square (several cm) less than 1 mm thick; in order to withstand long-lasting environmental exposure, the cells are sandwiched into layers of protective materials, such as glass or plastics; the interconnected cells form larger units, called panels or modules, which, in turn, can be interconnected to form an array; normally the cells are of dark colour, which allows them to absorb more light
• there are three main types of a semiconductor module: 1) monocrystalline silicon – with the silicon crystals all facing the same direction, designed for the perpendicular light, with efficiency estimate of 18-20%; 2) polycrystalline silicon – with the silicon crystals facing different directions, designed for throughout-the-day sun angles, with efficiency estimate of 15-17%; 3) thin film – a less efficient, yet constantly improving solution, designed mainly for diffused light and high temperatures; unlike two previous solutions, the thin film is flexible and can cover curvilinear complex surfaces
• in manufacturing • any of the several processes for fabricating three-dimensional objects by layering two-dimensional cross sections sequentially, one on top of another. The process is analogous to the fusing of ink or toner onto paper in a printer but is actually the solidifying or binding of a liquid or powder at each spot in the horizontal cross section where solid material is desired. Most common raw materials employed by 3D printing are plastics and metals (after Britannica)
• a layer of powder-like disintegrated or decomposed rock fragments laying above the solid rock on the surfaces of earth, moon, or generally a planet
• also known as significs • the study of meaning; the branch of semiotics dealing with the relations between signs and what they denote; applicable to architecture as far as understanding of the meaning of the form, or as the readability of the meaning of the form
• in architecture and design • any solid, geometrically describable embodiment; a component of form, but without the spatial element
• in computer graphics • a script responsible for a specific functionality or character of a material, such as colour, brightness, saturation, etc; shaders are fundamental blocks of procedural materials, as their combinations allow for digital reproduction of real world materials, or for creation of abstract and conceptual ones
• single-standing independent structure, that usually serves a specific function; can be internal or external
• internal SAF – a “box in box” situation, like a meeting room within a larger space
• external SAF – known as external rooms (e.g., kiosks) or sheds (e.g., bike shed, bus stop)
• a set of materials and devices used to convert sunlight into heat energy; their primary function is providing heat to space and water; two main types of solar thermal panels exist: flat-plate collectors and vacuum tube collectors, both normally using a mix of water and antifreeze as the heat transferring medium
• flat plate collectors – are rectangular flat tanks composed of transparent cover, absorbing surface, fluid that transports heat from the absorber to the main water tank; the main materials used for absorbing surface are polymers, copper, aluminium, steel; normally polymers would be preferable in colder climates, as they are lesser heat conductors than metals
• vacuum tube collectors – are systems of glass tubes through which the heat transferring fluid flows; because of the vacuum in the tubes, the absorbed heat can not leak, making the system prone to overheating, which makes them a better choice for the cold climates
• the art of interior design that deals with infusing desired and specific qualities into a given space, which are to be associated with a specific brand, its philosophy, vision, and general visual communication language
• also known as green architecture or environmental architecture • is the one which takes into account the environmental concerns related to the construction and operation of a given building, covering all the related building aspects such as project design, technological solutions, materials used, production techniques and methods, construction logistics, building lifespan and maintanence, et; number of standards have been created and implemented in order to help architects and engineers in creation of more sustainable buildings with the most common being LEED – Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design by the U.S. Green Building Council, BREEAM – Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method by the UK Building Research Establishment, Level(s) – european framework for sustainable buildings by European Commission
• 1) generation: solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, nuclear; 2) storage: batteries; 3) transport: electric vehicles
• pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that occur sequentially in the chain of speech or writing
• is a single-ply membrane made up of a layer of synthetics and reinforcing scrim; one of the most popular roofing systems, it is also used for the swimming pools; available in bright white colour, this product possesses high UV reflectance index
• the philosophical doctrine that final causes, design, and purpose exist in nature
• as related to full self-orienting technology applied in robotics and self-driving cars • a technology that allows for AI self-orientation in space by the means of variety of sensors and algorithms; an object within such space is represented in its simplest geometrical form, as a bounding box, with magnitude and direction (if any) assigned to it
• in traditional Japanese aesthetics • a concept of understanding imperfection as a part of perfection; acceptance of imperfection and transient nature of things
• in urban planning • a concept of the city development, which was dominant throughout the 20th century, and which was based on planning by the functional areas, such as areas dedicated to industry, residences, business activities, and leisure among others